A review of antibiotic resistance generation and control in wastewater and solid waste system

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is rapidly spreading across ecosystems and poses major public health risks. This review analyzes AMR transmission, surveillance, and mitigation strategies in wastewater and solid waste systems. Key measures include antibiotic stewardship, alternative therapies, and cellular-level interventions such as reducing oxidative stress, inhibiting efflux pumps, and disrupting quorum sensing. Resistance gene transfer can be curbed through advanced oxidation, adsorption, precipitation, ion exchange, and membrane permeability control. Biological controls, including bacteriophages and predatory bacteria, show strong potential. An integrated, multidisciplinary approach is essential to counter the global spread of AMR.